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Chapter 16. Hash Tables
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1995-03-27
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Common Lisp the Language, 2nd Edition
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
16. Hash Tables
A hash table is a Lisp object that can efficiently map a given Lisp object to
another Lisp object. Each hash table has a set of entries, each of which
associates a particular key with a particular value. The basic functions that
deal with hash tables can create entries, delete entries, and find the value
that is associated with a given key. Finding the value is very fast, even if
there are many entries, because hashing is used; this is an important advantage
of hash tables over property lists.
A given hash table can associate only one value with a given key; if you try to
add a second value, it will replace the first. Also, adding a value to a hash
table is a destructive operation; the hash table is modified. By contrast,
association lists can be augmented non-destructively.
Hash tables come in three kinds, the difference being whether the keys are
compared with eq, eql, or equal. In other words, there are hash tables that
hash on Lisp objects (using eq or eql) and there are hash tables that hash on
tree structure (using equal).
Hash tables are created with the function make-hash-table, which takes various
options, including which kind of hash table to make (the default being the eql
kind). To look up a key and find the associated value, use gethash. New entries
are added to hash tables using setf with gethash. To remove an entry, use
remhash. Here is a simple example.
(setq a (make-hash-table))
(setf (gethash 'color a) 'brown)
(setf (gethash 'name a) 'fred)
(gethash 'color a) => brown
(gethash 'name a) => fred
(gethash 'pointy a) => nil
In this example, the symbols color and name are being used as keys, and the
symbols brown and fred are being used as the associated values. The hash table
has two items in it, one of which associates from color to brown, and the other
of which associates from name to fred.
Keys do not have to be symbols; they can be any Lisp object. Similarly, values
can be any Lisp object.
[old_change_begin]
When a hash table is first created, it has a size, which is the maximum number
of entries it can hold. Usually the actual capacity of the table is somewhat
less, since the hashing is not perfectly collision-free. With the maximum
possible bad luck, the capacity could be very much less, but this rarely
happens. If so many entries are added that the capacity is exceeded, the hash
table will automatically grow, and the entries will be rehashed (new hash
values will be recomputed, and everything will be rearranged so that the fast
hash lookup still works). This is transparent to the caller; it all happens
automatically.
[old_change_end]
[change_begin]
There is a discrepancy between the preceding description of the size of a hash
table and the description of the :size argument in the specification below of
make-hash-table.
X3J13 voted in June 1989 (HASH-TABLE-SIZE) to regard the latter description
as definitive: the :size argument is approximately the number of entries that
can be inserted without having to enlarge the hash table. This definition is
certainly more convenient for the user.
[change_end]
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Compatibility note: This hash table facility is compatible with Lisp Machine
Lisp. It is similar to the hasharray facility of Interlisp, and some of the
function names are the same. However, it is not compatible with Interlisp. The
exact details and the order of arguments are designed to be consistent with the
rest of MacLisp rather than with Interlisp. For instance, the order of
arguments to maphash is different, there is no ``system hash table,'' and there
is not the Interlisp restriction that keys and values may not be nil.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Hash Table Functions
* Primitive Hash Function
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
16.1. Hash Table Functions
This section documents the functions for hash tables, which use objects as keys
and associate other objects with them.
[Function]
make-hash-table &key :test :size :rehash-size :rehash-threshold
This function creates and returns a new hash table. The :test argument
determines how keys are compared; it must be one of the three values #'eq,
#'eql, or #'equal, or one of the three symbols eq, eql, or equal. If no test is
specified, eql is assumed.
[change_begin]
X3J13 voted in January 1989 (HASH-TABLE-TESTS) to add a fourth type of hash
table: the value of #'equalp and the symbol equalp are to be additional valid
possibilities for the :test argument.
Note that one consequence of the vote to change the rules of floating-point
contagion (CONTAGION-ON-NUMERICAL-COMPARISONS) (described in section 12.1) is
to require =, and therefore also equalp, to compare the values of numbers
exactly and not approximately, making equalp a true equivalence relation on
numbers.
Another valuable use of equalp hash tables is case-insensitive comparison of
keys that are strings.
[change_end]
The :size argument sets the initial size of the hash table, in entries. (The
actual size may be rounded up from the size you specify to the next ``good''
size, for example to make it a prime number.) You won't necessarily be able to
store precisely this many entries into the table before it overflows and
becomes bigger, but this argument does serve as a hint to the implementation of
approximately how many entries you intend to store.
[change_begin]
X3J13 voted in January 1989 (ARGUMENTS-UNDERSPECIFIED) to clarify that the
:size argument must be a non-negative integer.
X3J13 voted in June 1989 (HASH-TABLE-SIZE) to regard the preceding
description of the :size argument as definitive: it is approximately the number
of entries that can be inserted without having to enlarge the hash table.
[change_end]
The :rehash-size argument specifies how much to increase the size of the hash
table when it becomes full. This can be an integer greater than zero, which is
the number of entries to add, or it can be a floating-point number greater than
1, which is the ratio of the new size to the old size. The default value for
this argument is implementation-dependent.
[old_change_begin]
The :rehash-threshold argument specifies how full the hash table can get before
it must grow. This can be an integer greater than zero and less than the
:rehash-size (in which case it will be scaled whenever the table is grown), or
it can be a floating-point number between zero and 1. The default value for
this argument is implementation-dependent.
[old_change_end]
[change_begin]
X3J13 voted in June 1989 (HASH-TABLE-SIZE) to replace the preceding
specification of the :rehash-threshold argument with the following: The
:rehash-threshold argument specifies how full the hash table can get before it
must grow. It may be any real number between 0 and 1, inclusive. It indicates
the maximum desired level of hash table occupancy. An implementation is
permitted to ignore this argument. The default value for this argument is
implementation-dependent.
[change_end]
An example of the use of make-hash-table:
(make-hash-table :rehash-size 1.5
:size (* number-of-widgets 43))
[Function]
hash-table-p object
hash-table-p is true if its argument is a hash table, and otherwise is false.
(hash-table-p x) == (typep x 'hash-table)
[Function]
gethash key hash-table &optional default
gethash finds the entry in hash-table whose key is key and returns the
associated value. If there is no such entry, gethash returns default, which is
nil if not specified.
gethash actually returns two values, the second being a predicate value that is
true if an entry was found, and false if no entry was found.
setf may be used with gethash to make new entries in a hash table. If an entry
with the specified key already exists, it is removed before the new entry is
added. The default argument may be specified to gethash in this context; it is
ignored by setf but may be useful in such macros as incf that are related to
setf:
(incf (gethash a-key table 0))
means approximately the same as
(setf (gethash a-key table 0)
(+ (gethash a-key table 0) 1))
which in turn would be treated as simply
(setf (gethash a-key table)
(+ (gethash a-key table 0) 1))
[Function]
remhash key hash-table
remhash removes any entry for key in hash-table. This is a predicate that is
true if there was an entry or false if there was not.
[Function]
maphash function hash-table
For each entry in hash-table, maphash calls function on two arguments: the key
of the entry and the value of the entry; maphash then returns nil. If entries
are added to or deleted from the hash table while a maphash is in progress, the
results are unpredictable, with one exception: if the function calls remhash to
remove the entry currently being processed by the function, or performs a setf
of gethash on that entry to change the associated value, then those operations
will have the intended effect. For example:
;;; Alter every entry in MY-HASH-TABLE, replacing the value with
;;; its square root. Entries with negative values are removed.
(maphash #'(lambda (key val)
(if (minusp val)
(remhash key my-hash-table)
(setf (gethash key my-hash-table) (sqrt val))))
my-hash-table)
[change_begin]
X3J13 voted in January 1989 (MAPPING-DESTRUCTIVE-INTERACTION) to restrict
user side effects; see section 7.9.
[change_end]
[Function]
clrhash hash-table
This removes all the entries from hash-table and returns the hash table itself.
[Function]
hash-table-count hash-table
This returns the number of entries in the hash-table. When a hash table is
first created or has been cleared, the number of entries is zero.
[change_begin]
[Macro]
with-hash-table-iterator (mname hash-table) {form}*
X3J13 voted in January 1989 (HASH-TABLE-PACKAGE-GENERATORS) to add the macro
with-hash-table-iterator.
The name mname is bound and defined as if by macrolet, with the body forms as
its lexical scope, to be a ``generator macro'' such that successive invocations
(mname) will return entries, one by one, from the hash table that is the value
of the expression hash-table (which is evaluated exactly once).
At each invocation of the generator macro, there are two possibilities. If
there is yet another unprocessed entry in the hash table, then three values are
returned: t, the key of the hash table entry, and the associated value of the
hash table entry. On the other hand, if there are no more unprocessed entries
in the hash table, then one value is returned: nil.
The implicit interior state of the iteration over the hash table entries has
dynamic extent. While the name mname has lexical scope, it is an error to
invoke the generator macro once the with-hash-table-iterator form has been
exited.
Invocations of with-hash-table-iterator and related macros may be nested, and
the generator macro of an outer invocation may be called from within an inner
invocation (assuming that its name is visible or otherwise made available).
X3J13 voted in January 1989 (MAPPING-DESTRUCTIVE-INTERACTION) to restrict
user side effects; see section 7.9.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rationale: This facility is a bit more flexible than maphash. It makes possible
a portable and efficient implementation of loop clauses for iterating over hash
tables (see chapter 26).
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(setq turtles (make-hash-table :size 9 :test 'eq))
(setf (gethash 'howard-kaylan turtles) '(musician lead-singer))
(setf (gethash 'john-barbata turtles) '(musician drummer))
(setf (gethash 'leonardo turtles) '(ninja leader blue))
(setf (gethash 'donatello turtles) '(ninja machines purple))
(setf (gethash 'al-nichol turtles) '(musician guitarist))
(setf (gethash 'mark-volman turtles) '(musician great-hair))
(setf (gethash 'raphael turtles) '(ninja cool rude red))
(setf (gethash 'michaelangelo turtles) '(ninja party-dude orange))
(setf (gethash 'jim-pons turtles) '(musician bassist))
(with-hash-table-iterator (get-turtle turtles)
(labels ((try (got-one &optional key value)
(when got-one ;Remember, keys may show up in any order
(when (eq (first value) 'ninja)
(format t "~%~:(~A~): ~{~A~^, ~}"
key (rest value)))
(multiple-value-call #'try (get-turtle)))))
(multiple-value-call #'try (get-turtle)))) ;Prints 4 lines
Michaelangelo: PARTY-DUDE, ORANGE
Leonardo: LEADER, BLUE
Raphael: COOL, RUDE, RED
Donatello: MACHINES, PURPLE
=> nil
[change_end]
[change_begin]
[Function]
hash-table-rehash-size hash-table
hash-table-rehash-threshold hash-table
hash-table-size hash-table
hash-table-test hash-table
X3J13 voted in March 1989 (HASH-TABLE-ACCESS) to add four accessor functions
that return values suitable for use in a call to make-hash-table in order to
produce a new hash table with state corresponding to the current state of the
argument hash table.
hash-table-rehash-size returns the current rehash size of a hash table.
hash-table-rehash-threshold returns the current rehash threshold.
hash-table-size returns the current size of a hash table.
hash-table-test returns the test used for comparing keys. If the test is one of
the standard test functions, then the result will always be a symbol, even if
the function itself was specified when the hash-table was created. For example:
(hash-table-test (make-hash-table :test #'equal)) => equal
Implementations that extend make-hash-table by providing additional
possibilities for the :test argument may determine how the value returned by
hash-table-test is related to such additional tests.
[change_end]
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
16.2. Primitive Hash Function
The function sxhash is a convenient tool for the user who needs to create more
complicated hashed data structures than are provided by hash-table objects.
[Function]
sxhash object
sxhash computes a hash code for an object and returns the hash code as a
non-negative fixnum. A property of sxhash is that (equal x y) implies (=
(sxhash x) (sxhash y)).
The manner in which the hash code is computed is implementation-dependent but
independent of the particular ``incarnation'' or ``core image.'' Hash values
produced by sxhash may be written out to files, for example, and meaningfully
read in again into an instance of the same implementation.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------